Outline the process of genetic modification using bacterial production of a human protein as an example, limited to: (a) isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends (b) cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends (c) insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid (d) insertion of recombinant plasmids into bacteria (specific details are not required) (e) multiplication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids (f) expression in bacteria of the human gene to make the human protein

Discuss why bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification, limited to: (a) few ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth (b) the presence of plasmids

Explain how a protein is made, limited to: • the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus • messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene • mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm • the mRNA passes through ribosomes • the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules • the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA (knowledge of the details of transcription or translation is not required)