explain that X-rays are produced by electron bombardment of a metal target and calculate the minimum wavelength of X-rays produced from the accelerating p.d.

recall and use Malus’s law (I = I0 cos² θ) to calculate the intensity of a plane-polarised electromagnetic wave after transmission through a polarising filter or a series of polarising filters (calculation of the effect of a polarising filter on the intensity of an unpolarised wave is not required)

describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light (the structure and use of the spectrometer are not included)