outline the principles of using monoclonal antibodies in the diagnosis of disease and in the treatment of disease

describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon, limited to: • binding of hormone to cell surface receptor causing conformational change • activation of G-protein leading to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase • formation of the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP) • activation of protein kinase A by cAMP leading to initiation of an enzyme cascade • amplification of the signal through the enzyme cascade as a result of activation of more and more enzymes by phosphorylation • cellular response in which the final enzyme in the pathway is activated, catalysing the breakdown of glycogen

explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme–substrate complex, lowering of activation energy and enzyme specificity, including the lock-and-key hypothesis and the induced-fit hypothesis